Sewage can be considered an integral part of the water resources of a region.

The ownership of sewage and the responsibility for sewage treatment and disposal must be clearly stated by law.

The proper integration of sewage to the water resources of the region requires efforts at multiple levels: institutional, financial, engineering, agronomic, legislation, R&D, etc.

Not all the problems must be necessary addressed and solved before starting the reuse practice. It is possible to evolve with time. Starting with small local projects for restricted irrigation is a potential approach. But developments must be monitored, discussed and coordinated in order to constantly adapt the switch from water to wastewater irrigation to changing conditions.

In a country that has practiced massive wastewater reuse for decades and is presently reusing 75 % of its sewage, most treated wastewater is still dedicated to restricted irrigation. Restricted irrigation liberates freshwater resources for unrestricted one. The controversial issue of “unrestricted irrigation with wastewater” is of secondary importance in many cases.

The development of reuse schemes for irrigation with effluents of very low quality (for cotton or similar crops) may lead to unstable situations when the market for these limited number of crops disappears. Effluents of higher quality allow the irrigation of a wider spectrum of crops adding stability to agriculture development.

Professional advice to farmers has been essential in the successful switch from water to wastewater irrigation in Israel. Israel farmers obtain this advice mainly through farmers organizations that can hire professional advice, and through the Ministry of Agriculture.

Open wastewater reservoirs can be excellent treatment units if operated as required. But, if the reservoirs belong to the farmers, they operate the reservoirs following irrigation needs and not treatment needs. The reservoirs should be under the control of the responsible for sewage treatment in order to be operated as treatment units.

The coexistence of reuse schemes of different sizes and characteristics is not only possible but also desirable. Small systems are less spectacular than large ones, but their effect on the rural sector is conspicuous.

Proper development and execution of the wastewater reuse policy requires the involvement of several institutions in order to cover the numerous aspects of the practice. But, too many institutions and/or a foggy division of roles, may lead to administrative conflicts and execution delays.

First commissioned projects are naturally the most promising ones while the remaining ones are the most difficult. Israel has been stacked around the 70-75% reuse for about two decades in spite of many efforts to reach almost 100% reuse.

Farmers find difficult to account for the nutrient content of effluents when dosing fertilizers. Most farmers just ignore the nutrients, adding to the problem of over-fertilization.

There are many different schemes between the urban and the rural sectors in Israel. The urban sector may treat sewage and sell it to farmers, the farmers may organize to treat the sewage of the urban sector and “sell” it to themselves, third party private firms may act as BOT contractors of the urban sector and sell the wastewater, etc. All the schemes seem to work properly when responsibilities are clearly set.

First concern when starting the reuse practice is the potential transmission of diseases and protection of public health. Agronomic parameters may be also addressed. Later on, sustainable water reuse requires addressing to environmental issues that were neglected at the beginning. There is a consensus regarding some sustainability issues such as salination of soil and aquifers. Other issues are controversial and Israel is still discussing them.

Reduction of the addition of salts and Boron to sewage during industrial and domestic use is a feasible practice.