A book on reservoirs for wastewater storage, treatment and reuse (un libro sobre reservorios para el almacenamiento, tratamiento y reuso de aguas servidas)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface                                                                                                    Juanicó and Dor

PART I - LIMNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 1.    Research and development policy                                        Shevah and Waldman
Chapter 2.    Wastewater reuse in Israel                                                     Eitan
Chapter 3.    Health and treatment requirements for wastewater irrigation    Shuval and Fattal
Chapter 4.    Empirical Data for Monitoring and Control                           Dor and Raber
Chapter 5.    Process design and operation                                               Juanicó
Chapter 6.    Hydraulic age distribution                                                       Juanicó and Friedler
Chapter 7.    Modelling                                                                            Friedler
Chapter 8.    Sediment-water interrelationship                                            Avnimelech
Chapter 9.    Specific construction details                                                   Romem
Chapter 10. Nitrogen and nitrification                                                        Abeliovich and Kaplan
Chapter 11. Phytoplankton                                                                       Dor
Chapter 12. Fauna                                                                                Dimentman and Por
Chapter 13. Odorous Compounds                                                            Ginzburg, Gun, Dor and Lev
Chapter 14. Degradation of Organosynthetic Pollutants                        Muskat
Chapter 15. Trace metals                                                                         Juanicó, David, Azov and Teltsch
Chapter 16. The clogging capacity of effluents Teltsch
Chapter 17. Particle characterization and filtration       Adin
Chapter 18. Satellite Remote Sensing                                                    Braude, Ben Yosef and Dor
Chapter 19. Experiences outside Israel                                                      Juanicó and Friedler

PART II - CASE STUDIES

Chapter 20. The Na’an Reservoir                                                              Dor, Schechter and Bromley
Chapter 21. The Getaot Reservoir                                                        Juanicó
Chapter 22. The Maale Kishon Reservoir       Eren
Chapter 23. The Negev Desert Reservoirs                                             Teltsch, Maoz, Kanarek, Azov and Dor
Chapter 24. The Enan Reservoir                                                          Gafny and Gasith

PREFACE

Deep wastewater reservoirs are unique limnological ecosystems sharing with waste stabilization ponds the highest extreme of the hypertrophic range. They are also a practical, efficient, cost effective wastewater treatment and storage technology.

Stabilization reservoirs have been operated in Israel for almost 30 years for the storage and treatment of wastewater effluents during the rainy winter months, in order to use them for agriculture irrigation during the dry summer months. Today there are more than 200 of these reservoirs operating in the country.

The use of reservoirs to store and treat wastewater is an old practice, but the development of deep reservoirs to cope with the evaporation rates of semi-arid and arid regions, their massive use, and the huge R&D effort invested to better understand their behavior and improve design and operational criteria are relatively new.

Wastewater reservoirs as a unique hypertrophic ecosystem.

The habitat of wastewater reservoirs resembles that of waste stabilization ponds, but the increased depth (average between 6 and 8 m, maximum up to 20 m), greater volumes (several million cubic meters) and the non-steady-state hydraulic regime, introduce several differences in the both the hydrology and the biological community.

Many of the characteristics quoted in the literature as typical of hypertrophic ecosystems can be found in wastewater reservoirs: mass growth of a few dominant species; suppression of plankton periodicity (the permanent blooming species lose periodicity because they are able to use the high supply of nutrients better than other species); lack of inorganic nutrient depletion; oxygen oversaturation during the day followed by low dissolved oxygen during the night; high oxygen production over the year; high bio-turbidity, etc.

An unique limnological characteristic of wastewater reservoirs is that the operational regime (which sharply changes during the year) and not the seasonal climatic changes, is the main factor affecting changes of the biological community and water quality. The frequent short-term external changes in input flows cause the system to be continuously in a state of transition between multiple steady-states. The result is a ecosystem with high regulatory potential due to its environmentally robust biota. For practical purposes, this means that the system can be regulated through design and operational parameters, depending less on climatic seasonal changes and unpredictable ‘natural’ plankton succession.

Besides, in spite of their ‘sewage treatment’ character, wastewater reservoirs are ‘green’:

The processes occurring within the reservoirs are natural. They utilize solar energy (mechanical sewage treatment plants use electricity). Algae within the reservoirs produce most of the oxygen required by the depuration processes (mechanical plants take oxygen from the atmosphere, with high energy consumption).
Aquatic birds and other water related animals find the reservoirs a good refuge; Israel wastewater reservoirs are commonly visited by thousands of aquatic birds every year. This is important in semi-arid and arid areas where the few ‘wet’ natural habitats of the birds have been invaded by urban, tourism or agriculture development.

Wastewater reservoirs as an emergent wastewater treatment technology.

These reservoirs perform simultaneously as storage volumes for better flow management, and as deep stabilization ponds with non-steady-state hydraulic regime. The reservoirs are a must in almost any wastewater reuse project, where there is always a need for regulation between the almost constant sewage flow and the irregular water demand for irrigation.

Besides, they can be used in numerous other situations:

Beach protection: Wastewater must be stored in coastal areas during the summer in order to avoid the contamination of beaches during the tourism season. By the end of summer -when the last tourist has gone- wastewater can be released from the reservoirs into the sea. Meanwhile, the effluents will reach excellent quality due to long residence time within the reservoirs during the summer months.
River/stream recovery (I): Wastewater is stored during the dry season when the rivers run with minimum flow. Wastewater of high quality will be released from the reservoirs to the river when river-flow is at maximum, thus obtaining maximum dilution and minimum negative ecological impact.
River/stream recovery (II): Wastewater is stored when river-flow is at maximum. Wastewater of very high quality is then released from the reservoirs to the rivers during the dry period as a substitute for freshwater, in order to avoid total drying and ecosystem destruction in rivers whose dry-season freshwater sources have been derived for other purposes.
High quality effluents are required: Wastewater contains not only organic matter but also significant concentrations of pathogens, heavy metals, hard detergents, pesticides, organic micro-pollutants, and other refractory pollutants which are not removed by the classic sewage treatment plants. Stabilization reservoirs are able to remove most of them.

This book.

The present publication has two main objectives:

To summarize in a single book the huge amount of interdisciplinary experience gained in Israel during the last 30 years and that is spread in numerous publications, most of them internal reports and local journals in Hebrew.
To fulfill the difficult task of transforming limnological and R&D studies into engineering design and operational criteria.

The book is divided into two sections:

A series of reviews on different aspects of wastewater reservoirs. The authors are the researchers, agronomists, engineers, biologists, etc., who actively worked on the specific subject of each chapter.
A series of case studies which summarize some of the most interesting field works performed on these systems.

Meanwhile, R&D on deep wastewater reservoirs continues both in Israel and abroad, and we expect to publish an updated second version of this book some years from now.

Dr. Marcelo Juanicó Prof. Inka Dor

Jerusalem, 1999